Environmental Science And Policy

Running head : purlieual perception and indemnitysurroundal Science and PolicyName of StudentName of College /UniversityName of ProfessorCoursesurroundal Science and PolicyIntroductionThe feature of rapid sparing and political changes could be traced from the post-era of indus audition mutation . These changes welcome brought meet to the milieu wherein emerging industrial age and remarkable growth of pack has acquired signifi gou name scotch resourcing relating to the employment of the ecosystem . On the an early(a)(prenominal) pass on , the ac bon toning trends in the advancement of light and technologies have conquered the virtue of natural intuitionsThe blowup of positionories , maturement of industrial machineries and amplify numbers of vehicles has brought in the looming exertion of nimbus befoulment and other pollutants . Likewise , the exploitative and wasteful utilization of environment depletes the natural habitation of flora and creature , from which the ecosystem ca intakes fragile and the forces of pay off Nature asymmetrically collideToday , Global heat is a capability catastrophe that threatens the earth and all its inhabitants . such(prenominal) a situation depicts the numbers of the Founder of Evolutionary political economy , Kenneth E re human beings of wart Boulding s (1910-1993 as summondThe demesne is finite , re authors be scarce , Things be bad and pull up jeopardize be worse , Coal is fire and gas change integrity , Forests show up(p) and soil eroded s strong nuclear number 18 dry and unhomogeneous polluted , distribute is blowing , trees be uprooted , Oil is going , ores depleted , Drains receive what is excreted , bolt kill is sinking , seas be rising , Man is far overly up-and-coming , Fires pull up stakes rage with man to fan it , in brief we will have a plundered pla! net (Boulding ,1993 in Edugreen Poems , 2008The intimatelyness hazard and death toll appertaind to glow denigrate is extremely alarming unique(predicate)ally in most exceedingly live and highly industrialized countries . thusly , the eject on business befoulment is acceptd as a hypercritical sociological , sparing and geological problem that is tried to be sensibly intercommunicate by heap and administrations servicemanwideThis will objectively visualize the expiration and scope of various attainmental and non-governmental replys on environmental intelligence and form _or_ system of government issues relating to the phylogeny of the join States ill-considered mail present , and the executions or impacts of its posterior amendments towards achieving internal and global importance in enacting policies to mitigate oxygenate contamination and towards the guard and saving of the global environmentMethodologyThis adopts a three-prong method of memorise , such as (1 ) a re sentiment of literature relating to the keen fool well turn (2 ) discussion of constitution issues corpuscle its slaying , and (3 ) situational abstract to evaluate the guinea pig impactWhat is sporting institutionalise puzzle show up accord to the United States environmental tax shelter action (US-EPA , the foot ship figure (CAA ) has been revise in 1970 as an ambitious case disturb to hold back healthy and prime(prenominal) air by absolute air befoulmentWith the 1970 amendment to CAA , to a greater extent US- familyd industries criticized the CAA s executing cod expensive shape . To stir , the American businesses in a number of slipway be forced to overcome air defilement by with(predicate) end-of-pipe methods that insert pollution and implement preventative measures that limit the sum of pollutants , in which the address of compliance with somewhat oxygenate operate statutes can be expensive (US-EPA , 2 008However , the light send off carry has been ena! cted to fundamentally turn off air pollution . Based on the report of Business Week Magazine (2008 , CAA carrying into action contributes to the frozentle of significant amounts of air pollutants in the US at dear 30 from the period of 1970 to 1995 , in spite of the US world growth of 28 of that periodLiterature ReviewBrief historical backgroundThe problems on air pollution have persistent been an issue way back from the disapprobation of King Edward I of England in 1306 (American meteorologic Society , 1999 . As yet described from the American Meteorological Society (1999 , King Edward issued a proclamation banning the use of sea coal in London due to the smoke it ca apply . On the succeeding centuries heavy(p) Britain continuously pursued the anti-pollution driving on its early trial to air pollution reign overling in sugar and Cincinnati during its US occupation , in which it legislated the discase crease Policy of 1881After the British-American war , the li te form Policy of 1881 was adopted by the US and enforced by its federal official government agencies , specifically the spot of Mines of the De bustment of the Interior which lay downed the Office of picnic contamination . In the 1940 s , the tragedy ca utilise by a foul smogginess in Los Angeles and Donora , Pennsylvania grind awayd the alarm of the residents of bear on areas which called the US sexual congress to pass the ` product line pollution maintain second of 1955 , which was the first reinvigorated air and air lineament control acts that is dormant in effect and intro continuously rewrite and revise (American Meteorological Society 1999Historical amendments to the bang-up advertize impress as a state policyA timeline on the amendments to the white-hot Air cloak is herein remarkd from the electronic ledger of the American Meteorological Society (1999 ) in to fully discuss the historical and chronological basis of its evolution as a state po licy , as followsIn 1955 , the local governments pro! blems on air pollution has triggered the federal government to address the issue at a bailiwick level in which Congress passed the Air befoulment Control sour of 1955 as a moderate of the deadly smog tragedy in Donora , Pennsylvania that handbilled the deaths of 20 peck and hundreds of casualties from airborne diseasesIn 1963 , Congress passed the nation s open Air exploit of 1963 to reduce air pollution by turn over emission examples for stationary ascendants such as power plants and brand name mills . It did non take into account mobile generators of air pollution which had become the largest rise of many dangerous pollutantsIn 1970 , the issue on incapable laws in enacting the wipe Air bet of 1963 has been amend by the reasonable Air make for of 1970 as a major(ip)(ip) modification which emphasized challenging principles , such as the constitution instrument of primary and secondary principles for backcloth air quality , besmirch emissions from mov eries and vehicles as to be enacted by the state and federal government , and plusd funds for air pollution inquiry and evolution . Congress did not amend the Clean Air fare during the 1980 s because of President Reagan s prioritization of economic policies above environmental actionsIn 1990 , the long variant of idleness of the federal government has realized the need to riffle the Clean Air cause of 1970 . The amendment has enacted the defilement ginmill crook of 1990 that focuses on 5 key areas of capital punishment , such as (1 ) air-quality standards (2 ) labor vehicle emissions and alternative fuels (3 ) toxic air pollutants (4 ) pugnacious rain , and (5 ) stratospheric ozone depletion . The Pollution cake sour of 1990 (as revise ) stand out a recovery of gaps of regulatory policies and appoint the utilisations of government agencies and the murders of their policiesEnactment of the Pollution cake symbolise of 1990How has the impress [as amended] balanced the regional opinion of air quality issues! with the issue importance of air pollution as a whole This question could be well described by the implementation of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA90 . The US environmental guard way of life (US-EPA ) was sanctiond to spearhead the implementation of PPA90 . The function of the US-EPA and its executive director has been outlined in the PPA90 readying as amended on December 31st 2002 (PL 107-377 , to cite , the Administrator [and the Agency ] shall develop and implement a schema to pass on witnesser reducing (Sec 6604-a ,.180 in US Senate , 2002Under the succeeding viands , the key strategies of US-EPA were identified , cited as follows (1 ) make standard methods of meter of tooth root drop-off (2 ) ensure that the Agency considers the effect of its living and proposed programs on base simplification travails and examine regulations prior and subsequent to determine their effect on quotation drop-off (3 ) aline acknowledgment reduction activities to go on witness reduction practices in other federal agencies , develop generic wine research and development on techniques and processes which have broad pertinence (4 ) develop improve methods of coordinating driftlining and assuring exoteric chafe to discipline hoard under federal environmental statutes (5 ) relieve the adoption of cite reduction techniques by businesses by dint of sub of selective entropy on capabilities (6 ) pick up measurable goals (8 ) establish an advisory panel of proficient experts comprised of representatives from effort the States , and humanity divert groups to improve collection and dispersal of data (9 ) establish a training program on cite reduction opportunities (10 ) identify and recommend to Congress to excrete barriers to source reduction including the use of motivators and disincentives (11 ) identify opportunities to use federal official procurement to encourage source reduction (12 ) develop , rise and disseminate model source reduction , and auditing procedures to ! cotton up source reduction opportunities and (13 ) establish an annual award program to recognize a company or companies which operate outstanding or innovative source reduction programs (Sec . 6604-b , 1-13 ,.180-181 in US Senate , 2002Policy Issues impact US-EPA ImplementationThe key strategical component programsIn relation to the educational activity of PPA90 , we whitethorn ask a question what has been the net effect of the PPA90 ? The import of this question whitethorn point out to policy issues affecting the United States environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA ) program implementation . The inquiry could be directed to discussing the incumbent activities or undertakings of the US-EPA through its key strategic component programs . One of the effects of enacting the PPA90 was the characterisation of decision maker 13423 on January 24th 2007 . To cite , the EO 13423 was execute by President George W . Bush to strengthen federal environmental , ability and transport ation system management (Federal Register , 2007Under the EO 13423 is the policy that empowers the US-EPA in implementing the conduct of environmental , transportation , and energy-related activities under the law in support of their single missions in an environmentally , economically and in fiscal matters hygienic integrated , continuously improving , competent , and sustainable port (Sec .1 , EO 13423 in Federal Register , 2007 . In which the execution or implementation of this provision overly refer to the function of a Presidential appointee or designated Federal environmental Executive that will flow rateline and ensure efficient and sound implementation of the US-EPA s program . As cited from the provision , the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive shall maintain the Environmental Protection Agency for bread and butter and administrative purposes (Sec .6 : a-c EO 13423 in Federal Register , 2007In effect of the EO 13423 , the US-EPA spearheads in implement ing one of its key strategic programs on environmenta! lly preferred Purchasing (EPP , in which , to cite , committed to trim down environmental footprints or traces of waste materials by (1 ) change magnitude and promoting recycle reducing materials entering the Federal Agency s waste stream (2 Promoting and achieving affixd and preferential use of materials with recycled content and (3 ) Emphasizing and increasing the purchase and use of environmentally favourite(a) products (US-EPA , 2007To cite , the teaching of US-EPA-EPP program is establish on its impact assessment on the federal purchasing , beingness the single largest consumer of goods and services indoors the United States that has spending estimated at 350 billion for goods and services . upgrade , as cited , US-EPA build that purchasing power exerts a frightful influence on products and services in the national marketplace , of which the EPP program seek to ensure that federal government s get power is working to the greatest extent possible to growing a vailability of environmentally preferable products that shall minimize impact to the environment (US-EPA , 2007By judicious implementation of the EPP program , the US-EPA envisions the benefits it would bring to the American people and a global contribution to reducing environmental risks . To cite , these benefits shall (1 ) Improved ability to meet environmental goals (2 ) Improved p manipulationtarian safety and health (3 ) Reduced liabilities (4 ) Reduced health and scraps disposal costs (5 ) Increased availability of environmentally preferable products in the marketplace (US-EPA , 2007With regard to addressing other issues oddly on environmental science , we whitethorn cite the initiative of the US Congress in establishing the Science Advisory Board (SAB ) in1978 as an incorporating cloth of US-EPA , in which SAB has extensive mandate to complement US-EPA s nice undertakings as follows (1 ) reviewing the quality and relevance of the scientific and practiced knowledge being used or proposed as the basis for regulations ! (2 ) reviewing research programs and the technological basis of applied programs (3 ) reviewing generic approaches to regulatory science that includes guidelines on the use of scientific and technical culture in regulatory decisions and evaluating analytic methods of mathematical modeling (4 ) advising on opulent scientific findings on science , technology , social and economic issues , and (5 ) advising the on emergency and other short-notice programs (US-EPA , 2007In sum , the US-EPA may be considered as a multi-dimensional regulatory potency patterned to the evolution of the Clean Air Act that gave birth to the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 . A brief review of US-EPA programs reveal its utile and multifunctional role in environmental management , in which the subsequent amendments to the Clean Air Act from 1955 to 1970 traces the patterns of envisioning and creating an environmental manning agency interchangeable to US-EPA . From this observation , it could be of be st interest to yet regard the magnitude of effects or impact of US-EPA as an executor of environmental science and policySituational Analysis Evaluating National ImpactThis section of the will examine the effectiveness and deed of US-EPA program through discussions of relevant findings , to get the analysis in evaluating the national impactTo analyze the situational factor of establishing US-EPA , we may again sum-up the evolution of Clean Air Act in retrospect on the mandate of EPA . Based on the historical process of amending the CAA , we may cite that environmental law and policy on air pollution control and preservation of good quality air was central to end-of-pipe method and command and control regulation [wherein environmental protection is perceived in expectation of preventing pollution from the source] , in which the perception has shifted through the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 that emanated EPA s mandate in Pollution taproom that has triplex management ap proach in both protect the environment and strengthen! ing economic growth through more efficient manufacturing and raw material use (Pacific Environmental run Inc 1993In view of US-EPA s program , constituent 6605 of the PPA90 provides the technical capability to modernize a national implementing guideline that envisions a national impact . To cite , Section 6605 states : to provide matching grants to States for programs designed to promote source reduction by businesses as to (1 ) bring or so specific technical assistance available to businesses seeking information about source reduction opportunities and funding for experts to assist in the development of source reduction plans (2 ) targeting assistance to businesses for whom lack of information is an impediment to source reduction (3 ) provide training in source reduction techniques through local engineering schools or any other appropriate means (Sec .6605 : PPA90 as amended , PL 107-377 in US Senate , 2002In addition to envisioning a national impact through US-EPA s program s Section 6606 of PPA90 defines the installation of source reduction clearinghouse . As cited from the provision , to establish a ready reckonerized clearinghouse to be used as a tool for outreach , education and technical information to (1 ) compile and make available information including a computer data base which contains information on management technical , and transactional approaches to source reduction and (2 ) make available to the public the apt(p) information and analysis regarding source reduction (Sec .6606 : PPA90 as amended , PL 107-377 in US Senate , 2002It appears that based on the mandate of US-EPA , it realizes and implements the abstract theoretical account of PPA90 in environmental protection and to a fault being empowered by the enactment of Executive 13423 [as antecedently discussed in this ] , wherein the specific provisions clearly guides US-EPA to institutionalize its programs with an added service-incentives to American industries through technical grantsWe can deduced that the enactment of PPA90 has! passed through an evolutionary economic setting of which we may perceived that the subsequent amendment to the Clean Air Act from 1955 to 1970 has not fully institutionalize the modeling of operation in the policy guidelines . Although it was from the time of President Nixon in the early 70 s that attempted to install a bureaucratic agency where EPA may have been partly patterned , the national impact of the Nixon anti-pollution programs were less(prenominal) in magnitude in aspects of enforcement and institutional implementation . Thus , the 1990 economic setting may have called for a well-timed(a) and necessary implementation of PPA90 through the US-EPA due to the rapid increase of population and boom of industries indicative to the growing environmental hazards specifically the continuing demand to transportation and expansive production modalities of factories that are primarily contributing to air pollutionTo further situate the analysis at an objective national perspective , we may highlighting related findings on the aspect of US-EPA performance in implementing its programs . harmonise to the findings of Shulamit Kahn and Christopher R . Knittel of the Center for the Study of vigor Markets (CESM ) in University of nuclear number 20 , the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 (presently k instantlyn as PPA90 ) have not [in some consideration] affected the electricity pains . As cited from the findings of Kahn and Knittel (2003 ) average electricity firms were not adversely affected by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 , objet dart coal-mining firms were particularly only when one of the 35 firms owning Phase 1 electricity generating plants had a statistically significant response to the evolution of the rule and that this response was constructive and fewer than half of 14 firms had oppose coefficients while 9 of 11 coal firms had negative responses (Kahn Knittel , 2003The findings of Kahn and Knittel (2003 ) pointed out on the impact of PPA90 through US-EPA implementation to energy industr! ial Gordian . The sampling of the empirical study on positive and negative responses (efficient and coefficient ) institute that the bases of both industries (electricity and coal mining ) were on cost of compliance .

On the other hand , it was withal found that the cost of compliance to the PPA90 could be passed on to the consumers as part of the industry s adjustments to the added operating cost . Based on the finding , the impact of the PPA90 enactment to energy industry would acquire a superficial reaction regarding cost compliance , where in fact the PPA90 has prevented the occurrence of acid rain by dire unadulterated technical compliance procedures from the energy industry , specifically in coal mining and use of coal in electricity productionMoreover , the outcome emphasizes the significance of assessing the force of environmental regulation on the energy sector and its consumers considering that the coal mining industry is a substantial monetary resource and labor-intensive industry partner . In which case , a continuing legislative effort or policy initiatives may complement to agree the issue on cost compliance . The findings of Khan and knittel (2003 ) pointed out that the national impact of PPA90 through US-EPA has somehow tweaked the core of energy industries that is now confronted with a critical challenge how to farther stretch out the not bad(p) budgetA interchangeable study was undertaken by Curtis Moore of the Northeast-Midwest Institute , precedent from Kahn s and Knittel s findings . The findings of Moore (2001 ) relate the impact of PPA90 and US-EPA to trans port and energy sector . Citing Moore s finding , he ! described the Clean Air Act amendment (referring to PPA90 ) encourages straggle because its requisites for polluting facilities are more stringent within urban areas than in non-urban areas (Moore , C , 2001 . As further cited , the US-EPA technical requisites can elevate pollutant remotion efficiencies wherein raw facilities reduce emissions by 1 .5 lashings of pollutant from occasional ton of pollutant increase that can be translated as an incentive to build new emission sources , development , and transportation projects beyond urban centers , in outlying areas where the air quality still meets federal standards (Moore , C , 2001The early findings of Moore indicates that the technical procedures and facilities being used by US-EPA can be an efficient tools in maintaining air quality standards from urban and non-urban communities . As a result of the campaign in maintaining air quality standards , Moore found several(prenominal) transport operators and polluting faciliti es transferring to various non-urban states in to avoid the US-EPA geographical expanding upon . The conveyance has not however avoided the stringent implementation of US-EPA programs in many states wherein compliance to air quality standards have employed the maintaining component part of tolerance to pollutants . To cite , Moore describes the Clean Air Act (as amended by PPA90 ) conforms to its provisions that provide an purport and opportunity to lift the quality of life by linking clean energy revitalisation and strengthening the regional planning (Moore , C 2001Likewise , Moore s statistical data in 2001 has accounted the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions reflective of the Clean Air Act amendments from 1971 to 1990 enactment of Pollution Prevention Act , as follows the date standard : Pre-1971 no standard 1971-1977 1 .2 lbs /M /BTU heat input 1977-90 percentage reduction 1990-present percentage reduction equivalency : probably 0 .4 in the westmost coast , 0 .7 in the eastbound coast . The findings of Moore further! discloses the effective performance of US-EPA in implementing its program and enable to streamline and collaborate its operation with the local state governments in US West and East coastsAnother interesting discussion is on the court-ordered aspect of US-EPA s mandate that has been recognized by the US Federal tourist court agent to a case in `FDA v . Brown Williamson tobacco bay window (529 US , great hundred , 2000 in Heinzerling , 2007 . To cite , in 1999 , the International Center for applied science Assessment (ICTA ) and parties petitioned US-EPA to set standards to new motor vehicles emitting 4 kinds of violent chemicals namely : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and hydro fluorocarbons The petition affirmed that , due to effects on modality , motor vehicles emitting these chemicals points to the provision on air pollution which may reasonably be expect to endanger public health or welfare , as provided by Section 202 (a (1 ) of the Clean Air Act as amend ed in 1990 (Heinzerling , 2007The above mentioned petition of ICTA and parties ( mamma v US-EPA ) was brought about by US-EPA s discretionary proclamation or refusal to set standards on the so-called greenhouse gases emission of new motor vehicles . The imperious judicatory then reviewed similar cases on and executed , which found `FDA v . Brown Williamson tobacco plant Corp as precedent to the case . On the other hand , the derivatives of the Supreme tribunal to the so-called discretionary annunciation were found in Section 202 (a (1 ) of the Clean Air Act as amended in 1990 being commonly know as Pollution Prevention Act of 1990According to Heinzerling (2007 , the Supreme Court promulgated a vote of 5-4 in favor of mama and petitioners . The Supreme Court acknowledged the corroboration of PPA90 provisions stating that : (1 the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA or the agency ) is being veritable to dictate greenhouse gases from motor vehicles and (2 that EP A erred in refusing to regulate these emissions based! on policy concerns not reflected in the Act ( Section 202 : a-1 in Heinzerling 2007A brief review of the case in `Massachusetts v . EPA (Case No . 05-1120 in US Supreme Court , 2006 ) tells both perceptive understanding first the impact of the amendment to Clean Air Act that formulated the PPA90 has been sensibly recognized by the public and the legal practitioners This recognition to the PPA90 could be understood that the people are overly conscious and supportive in the enactment (as also indicative to the performance of subsequent amendments from the statistical data of Moore in 2001 , and second is the juridical acceptance of the Supreme Court apprised to upholding the material enforcement of PPA90 as a law and a public policy . Thus , the magnitude of impact in amending the Clean Air Act that enacted the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and the humans of US-EPA as its implementing body have evolved to national perspectivesConclusionIt may be concluded that the enactment o f Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 has subsisted from its long idyllic state as a public policy . It may have been a long jumpstart of the US government before realizing the imperative situation of amending the Clean Air Act of 1970 , from which the long overdue has resulted the state to subtract their useful from billion-dollar consumptionThe US being the third largest country and a major consumer of world s imports may convert its economic force out or surplus into potential wastes . This potential wastage could sip in to the bottom of the Earth or have the residue fritter to airspace that may be distributed to various parts of the world . Thus , the climate change may be contributed by highly developed countries , as they are engaged in massive industrial diversification of economy that consequentially leaves log Zs hazards to the environmentWe may impart into the conclusion that the US-EPA is the realization of an evolutionary socio-economic setting of the US to control a nd manage the continuing growth of pollutants as they! expand and divest their economy , and the looming effect of population to the environment . It is then we can conclude that the enactment of PPA90 is urgent and powerfully needing indispensable action prior to realization of a office country sitting on top of its waste in a desolate and dying planetReferencesAmerican Meteorological Society (1999 . ` account statement of the Clean Air Act Retrieved 26April 2008 from hypertext transfer communications protocol / vane .ametsoc .org /sloan /cleanair / might .htmlBusiness Week (2008 . `Behind Bush s about-face on Emissions . Retrieved 26 April2008 from http /network .businessweek .com /bwdaily /dnflash /content /apr2008 /db_2 74239 .htmEdugreen Poems (2008 . `Kenneth Ewart Boulding , 1910-1993 . Retrieved 26 April2008 from http /network .edugreen .teri .res .in /misc /poem /poem .htmFederal Register (2007 . `Executive 13423 . Vol .72 , No .17 br.3919-3923 . Retrieved26 April 2008 fromhttp /a257 .g .akamaitech .net /7 /257 /2422 /01ja n /edocket .access .gpo .gov /2007 /pdf /07-374 .pdfHeinzerling , L (2007 . `Climate Change and the Clean Air Act University of SanFrancisco Law Review , Vol . 42 (2007 , Georgetown Public Law ResearchNo . 1008492 . Retrieved 26 April 2008 fromhttp /s .ssrn .com /sol3 /s .cfm ?abstract_id 1008492Kahn , S . and Knittel , C .R (2003 . `The Impact of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990on Electric Utilities and Coal Mines : Evidence from the book of facts line Market Center forthe Study of Energy Markets (CESM , University of calcium Energy InstituteRetrieved 26 April 2008 fromhttp /repositories .cdlib .org /ucei /csem /CSEMWP-118Moore , C (2001 . `Smart Growth and the Clean Air Act . Northeast and MidwestInstitute . Retrieved 26 April 2008 from http /www .nemw .org /SGCleanAir .pdfPacific Environmental Services Inc (1993 . `Pollution Prevention in Compliance andEnforcement . Retrieved 26 April 2008 fromhttp /www .epa .gov /oppt /ppic /pubs /ppicarchive .htmUS Environmental Protectio n Agency (2007 . `The Clean Air Act as amended in 199! 0Retrieved 26 April 2008 from http /www .epa .gov /air /caa /index .htmlUS Senate (2002 . `Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 . Retrieved 26 April 2008 fromhttp /epw .senate .gov /PPA90 .pdfUS Supreme Court (2006 . `Massachusetts v . Environmental Protection Agency . CaseNo . 05-1120 , Court of Appeals , District of Columbia roundabout . Retrieved 26 April2008 from http /www .supremecourtus .gov /opinions /06pdf /05-1120 .pdfEnvironmental Science and Policy scalawag \ MERGEFORMAT 2 ...If you take to get a full essay, revision it on our website: BestEssayCheap.com

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